Battery Disaster Research

https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01400

Failures associated with Li-ion batteries are described to be deflagration in nature. Studies have shown that a cell’s tolerance to an off-nominal condition such as an over-charge need not necessarily translate to a module-or battery-level tolerance to that same condition. Over-discharge is a process wherein the Li-ion cell is discharged below the manufacturer’s recommended end-of-discharge voltage. This can occur, as with a large ESS, when there is an imbalance in the cell’s electrochemical properties, such as capacity and internal resistance, described in simple terms as the “weak cell/cells.” In the absence of cell balancing in modules, a single or multiple over-discharges during the battery usage phase can lead to conditions in successive cycles that can subsequently lead to a catastrophic thermal runaway. With large ESSs, due to the significantly large number of cells required to build the battery system, cell-level voltage monitoring, cell balancing, and under-voltage cut off at the module and battery pack levels are imperative.

An investigative analysis into the hazards of Li-ion battery energy storage systems, with a major focus on the electrical risks associated with improper maintenance and discharge. Further inspection into thermal and natural hazards, such as earthquakes, leading to Li-ion BESS failure are included with a mitigation proposal for implementing better management practices. Article published July 2022 for the American Chemical Society journal.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jlp.2022.104932

Thermal runaway of the lithium ion battery cells is the primary cause and concern for a BESS fire or explosion. At a high state of charge (SOC), lithium ion cells tend to fail via flaming, overpressure, and flaring. While a BESS fire can be large and intense, flammable gases that are being liberated by the cells during the propagating thermal runaway will be partially consumed in the fire. As a result, the venting of cells and battery packs have the potential to produce explosive concentrations over a range of SOC. An ignition source is typically present due to hot surfaces, high gas venting temperatures, and energized electrical equipment. If more cells would fail and raise the volume concentration of the flammable battery gas above the UEL (Upper Explosive Limit), the probability of an explosion increases as well because the introduction of air at a later point of time (e.g., opening a door) would provide the conditions for an explosible atmosphere. Prevention measures should be directed at thermal runaway. This is by far the most severe BESS failure mode as demonstrated in the introduction to the hazard mitigation analysis. If it cannot be stopped, fire and explosion are the most severe consequences.

Following the protocols for hazard analysis set forth by the National Fire Protection Association, a breakdown on the challenges for long-term storage of Li-ion batteries are explained. This involves conditions within the BESS facilities that allow for the risk of fire and toxic fumes emerging and at what capacity due to multiple factors, i.e. improper venting and short circuits. Article accepted November 14^th, 2022 for the Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industry published in Maryland.

https://www.nfpa.org/-/media/Files/News-and-Research/Fire-statistics-and-reports/Hazardous-materials/RFFireHazardAssessmentLithiumIonBattery.ashx

Several gaps were identified in a review of electrical, fire, and building codes typically adopted in the United States as they relate to ESSs. These gaps are predominantly related to sections of the codes categorizing battery systems based on the volume of liquid electrolyte, which is not appropriate for assessing Li-ion ESS hazards. Previous research on other large format Li-ion batteries had demonstrated that the batteries did not significantly add to the HRR of the fire, that the fires can be extinguished with large amounts of water, the batteries can pose a projectile hazard when designed with cylindrical 18650 cells, but do not pose that hazard with polymer or pouch style cells, that toxic compounds such as CO2, NOx, HCN, HCl, CO, and HF can be produced during the fires, water samples collected after extinguishing Li-ion battery fires can contain concentrations of fluoride and chloride, and that no electrical hazards exist for personnel suppressing a battery fire from current leakage through the hose stream provided they are standing at specified standoff distances. Additional testing accounting for other toxic products of combustion may warrant further investigation.

The 2016 final report for the National Fire Protection Association for evaluating the chemical hazards associated with Li-ion BESS fires under varying temperature conditions. The analysis compared external and internal events and the potential for toxicity to occur in the surrounding environment by observing water and atmospheric changes during live fire tests. The NFPA is set to release new standards on combating against public health hazards for Li-ion energy storage systems based on this report in 2024.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.128782

Gas combustion incidents in ESS could also occur in semi-confined channels, where the combustible mixtures accumulate. If the concentration exceeds the lower explosive limit (LEL), a fire or explosive accident will be unavoidable. The fragility of an ESS container’s structural integrity is often the door, and its resistance to internal pressure depends on the design of vent door pressures, which is a quintessential safety parameter in design. To predict the explosion characteristic of thermal runaway (TR) vented gases explosion within an ESS container, a three dimensional combustion model has been developed within the frame of open source code OpenFOAM, where the coupled boundary conditions were considered to achieve the design of explosion vent doors and top deflagration vent panels. After considering the venting panel design, the intensity of the internal explosion was weakened. As the number of vent panels increased, the peak overpressure inside the container gradually decreased, and the enhanced external secondary explosion served as the main form of container pressure relief, avoiding destructive overpressure inside the container.These results could offer a perspective to assess the potential hazards of gas explosions in ESS and provide the guidelines to optimize the explosion-venting design.

A numerical model to investigate the destructive capabilities of gas explosions caused by Li-ion battery ESS failure in a confined enclosure. The objective is to understand how to minimize the impact of the explosion and reduce the incidence of damage due to fire by introducing different ventilation parameters. Accepted May 21^st, 2023 for the Science and Technology of Fuel and Energy journal volume 351.

https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-09784-z

An irreversible thermal event in a lithium-ion battery can be initiated in several ways, by spontaneous internal or external short-circuit, overcharging, external heating or fire, mechanical abuse etc. The consequences of such an event in a large Li-ion battery pack can be severe due to the risk for failure propagation. In the event of overheating the electrolyte will evaporate and eventually be vented out from the battery cells. The gases may or may not be ignited immediately. In case the emitted gas is not immediately ignited the risk for a gas explosion at a later stage may be imminent. The research area of Li-ion battery toxic gas emissions needs considerable more attention. Today we have a rapid technology and market introduction of large Li-ion batteries but the risks associated with gas emissions have this far not been possible to take into consideration due to the lack of data.

The proposed method of testing for gas emissions of Li-ion batteries under water mist in confined and semi-confined spaces to assess the concentration of harmful gases due to improper humidity control. The report indicates that there is a limitation in testing for a variety of toxic gases from Li-ion ESS combustion and that the expansion on research would allow for changes to the risk assessment of gas explosions due to improper battery cell storage in commercial practices. Proposed to the NIH National Library of Medicine and published August 2017 to Scientific Reports Journal.

https://doi.org/10.1002/prs.12387

The high energy density of a typical BESS and the potential propagation/escalation of a runaway reaction incident presents a significant challenge in terms of specifying a suitable fire protection system. While gaseous clean-agent systems can help extinguish or reduce the extent of the fire, they do not have sufficient cooling properties to prevent the escalation of a thermal runaway from a single cell or module/ rack, plus have the potential disadvantage of adding more toxic materials to the fire. The best strategy is to consider a layered approach that combines design features, early detection, and suppression methods. Large Lithium-ion based BESS should have multiple layers of protection to minimize the likelihood of a thermal runaway occurring and cascading from a single cell or module as well as mitigating the resulting consequences associated with the potential fire, toxic release, or explosion. Environmental damage and clean-up costs could be significant where firewater and lithium-ion cell electrolytes contaminate the ground/water courses and secondary containment should be considered.

Constructed for emergency response teams and fire brigade personnel to assess the risk of livelihood associated with Li-ion BESS facilities. This includes economic considerations and secondary impacts of environmental damage as a consequence of thermal runaway from improper cooling. Published as a six-part series of training articles on battery energy storage systems May 2022 for the American Institute of Chemical Engineers under the Process Safety Progress publication.

https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EE00691F

Wherever there is a potential of making profit there are attempts to bypass official routes of making business. As the recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) will be profitable at least to some degree, there is a big chance that some illegal processing will occur, as it happened for waste electronic equipment. Such activity will result in pollution surrounding the processing site, poor working conditions of workers and thus worsening their health and quality of life. The disposal and processing of LIBs, as well as their properties (e.g. chemistries), will have a significant impact on various environmental compartments. LIBs contain a variety of chemicals including reactive salts, volatile organic electrolytes and additives: the latter are often commercial secrets and hence their toxicity and combustion products are largely unknown. Moreover, battery fires, in combination with biogas from landfills, may release toxins into the air or leach the harmful contents into the soil, groundwater and surface water. Once released, they pose risks to the surrounding environment alone or in combination with other pollutants.

Composed by the Royal Society of Chemists, the report investigates into the environmental and public health impacts of Li-ion batteries disposed from energy storage system facilities that are deposited in landfills. Fires that occur for landfill maintenance that contain disposed Li-ion batteries can present further challenges when leaked gases are combined with burning chemicals released from unknown sources. The report further explores into the long-term consequences of soil, water and atmospheric contamination from Li-ion battery pollution and the benefits of recycling on the health impact of at-risk wildlife and urban populations.  Published October 13^th, 2021.

https://doi.org/10.1109/ETCM.2017.8247485

One of the most important applications for BESS in a power system is as a support for renewable energy sources (RES). In buildings and residential applications, BESS is also seen as an integrator tool for RES allowing owners to produce and consume energy locally. BESS has the advantage, over other storage technologies, of responding rapidly and precisely to frequency deviations, making it an optimal technical solution for primary control provision (PCP). The reliability of the power system also improves with the use of BESS. This system can be seen as a tool to implement post-contingency corrective control actions to keep the balance of load generation. Because of its reduced time of response, the BESS can be used to react immediately after a contingency. In many studies integrating BESS in power system have shown particular characteristics to support voltage in distribution networks. By installing a BESS in a distribution network, voltage deviation can be reduced, which improves the integration of renewable energy because it reduces the events triggering the protections of the inverters. However, the maturity level of this technology, its complexity and economic problems have held back its implementation in current power systems. It is certain that BESS allows increasing levels of RES penetration in the power system; however, to do that it is necessary to optimize the capacity and location according to the application. An economic assessment report on the benefits of introducing Li-ion BESS into the renewable energy efficiency market for commercial and residential use. Utilizing Li-ion battery energy storage system facilities reduces the environmental impact of current energy efficient technologies, including solar and wind farms, while providing security during electrical outages. This article was published for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 2017 October RETRACT conference.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.10.129

A key result of a holistic system simulation is the energy efficiency, which can only accurately be evaluated if all relevant energy loss mechanisms are covered in the simulation. Losses of battery storage systems include conversion losses and the auxiliary system power consumption. An accurate model should, therefore, include both mechanisms. This work aims to create a holistic simulation model to perform an accurate energy efficiency analysis of stationary lithium-ion battery systems. A detailed breakdown of the energy losses is given. As the model parameters derived and used herein are based on an actual battery system and the evaluated application scenarios are typical battery system applications, the simulations give realistic results for the performance of lithium-ion battery systems.  As the system thermal management is shown to be a small part of the energy losses, simpler and less costly configurations compared to the system of this work should be further evaluated as possible options. However, the aging of the battery cells needs to be considered in this evaluation as well. The safety analysis of the battery system also needs to be included, studied and updated with prospective thermal management setups. The safety aspect should be studied in more detail and validated by experimental data, especially if higher system temperatures are expected to occur.

The article is a step-by-step simulation of how energy loss occurs in a Li-ion battery ESS. There is a primary focus on cell variation and thermal management in the longevity of Li-ion battery systems. The simulation reflects current prototypes of large energy storages systems. Accepted October 31^st, 2017 for the journal of Applied Energy.

https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2021-08/lithium-ion-battery-report-update-7.01_508.pdf

Municipal waste usually travels through numerous waste management facilities from the point of generation to the end facility. Originating at homes or businesses, municipal waste then goes to landfills, recycling facilities, or incinerators, with optional stops between. Unfortunately, lithium ion batteries (LIBs) can be incompatible with this complex waste management ecosystem in numerous ways. In particular, the highly mechanized processes at MRFs can damage LIBs and trigger thermal runaway, potentially leading to injuries, monetary losses, emergency response, and service disruptions, among other impacts. Dedicated LIB recycling programs could alleviate these problems by diverting batteries that would otherwise enter municipal solid waste (MSW), and could also help meet increasing market demand for LIBs driven by growing demand for electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and portable consumer electronics. As this report’s research methodology and discussions with industry representatives reveal, the problem of LIBs entering the waste system and the impacts they cause are severely underestimated. Relying solely on media reports of fire incidents at waste facilities will lead to underreporting of both the frequency and severity of this problem. Waste facilities’ pragmatic responses, heightened awareness of workers in the field, rising insurance rates, anecdotal reports, and quantitative evidence all demonstrate that the issue of improperly discarded LIBs is a serious and growing concern for members of the waste management industry.

This EPA presentation explores the different approaches of waste management for Li-ion batteries and their risk to environmental health. A comprehensive breakdown of each waste facility option with associated hazard labeling for fire prevention is provided along with detailed analytical reports and relevant case studies of BESS facility failures. This presentation was published July 2021 for the EPA Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2023.107384

Lithium-ion battery energy storage system (LIBESS) requires a large number of interconnected battery modules to support the normal operation of the energy storage system when storing, converting and releasing electrical energy. Therefore, once a battery unit fire occurs in a relatively closed storage space, it is easy to cause a chain combustion reaction of adjacent battery modules. Studies have shown that the thermal runaway propagation rate decreases significantly after the oxygen concentration decreases. At present, qualitative and quantitative modeling technology plays a key role in the risk assessment of explosion accidents. The whole process of fire and explosion in the LIBESS is truly restored by means of numerical method, and the migration and explosion risk law of combustible medium in complex connected space is deeply analyzed. The fire and explosion accident of the LIBESS in Beijing is destined to go down in history for its uniqueness. At the time of the accident, no one could have predicted that a fire in one building would lead to an explosion in another building. Therefore, the unpredictability of the risk of this explosion accident is chilling.

A case study on the April 2021 Beijing, China Li-ion BESS disaster. Included is a investigation analysis and modeled simulation of the impacts and damages that occurred due to a short circuit at a power supply company that led to a gas explosion and fire. The case study was accepted June 1^st, 2023 for the journal of Engineering Failure Analysis.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2021.103023

The application of BESS sizing has been categorized into four sectors, namely, BESS sizing in microgrids, distributed renewable energy systems, standalone hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES), and renewable energy power plant. BESS optimization refers to the sizing and placement of the BESS in such a way which become more popular among consumers on the cost effectiveness, energy cut and demand expenses. Nowadays, due to the constant increase of fossil fuel burning, carbon emission, and scarcity of fuel sources, BESS is becoming a promising alternative source for fast response, adaptability, controllability, environmental friendliness, and geographical independence. The most common challenge of developing a BESS system is the economic aspects. Suitable optimization approaches are needed, considering the issues and constraints specially to reduce GHG emissions.

A review with survey of the benefits and long-term outcomes of Li-ion BESS facilities compared to energy efficiency models. The review explores into the optimization of BESS for economic stability. Constraint parameters are tested to investigate the methodologies of Li-ion battery optimization for long-term energy efficiency. Accepted for the Journal of Energy Storage volume 42 on July 26^th, 2021.

https://doi.org/10.2172/1768315

EPA regulates batteries, including large-format lithium-ion batteries (LiBs), as a category of hazardous waste that may be managed as universal waste. Universal waste is a subset of hazardous waste that generally has less-stringent waste management requirements than hazardous waste regulations. Because the universal waste rules are less stringent than the hazardous waste rules, any state that administers its own RCRA hazardous waste program can choose to adopt any or none of the federal universal waste categories. Any person that stores LiBs, classified as hazardous or universal waste, prior to recycling or disposal may be subject to more RCRA requirements. Hazardous waste generators who store LiBs classified as hazardous waste before recycling/disposal, or secondary hazardous material before reclamation longer than the generator regulations allow must comply with hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facility (TSDF) requirements or be subject to a penalty for noncompliance.

An economic report on the waste potential of Li-ion batteries in energy storage systems. An in-depth analysis of the reuse and disposal of Li-ion batteries for federal and state regulation considers current EPA standards on hazardous versus non-hazardous waste management. Constructed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory for the Department of Energy and revised in March 2021.

To develop and implement an efficient grid-connected lithium ion battery (LIB) ESS most frequently faced issue is cost reduction. The cost analysis of grid-connected

BESS is determined by a variety of parameters, including the kind of BESS chosen, the number of storage types integrated, the climatic conditions, the aspects of the implemented area, the installation, and the maintenance cost. An effective cost-optimized system with smooth integration with the grid along with the RES can be the solution to the current power generation and distribution problem. The LIB has some positive factors over the existing energy storage technologies which makes it a highly possible alternative to the existing fossil fuel-based energy generation system. Although, more factors such as cost, the lithium extraction process, recycling are needed to be addressed and extensive research is required for the implementation of LIB at the grid level.

A bibliographic assessment on the energy efficiency of Li-ion batteries for grid-connected ESS. Challenges with economic, power quality and environmental impacts are compared against current fuel EES. Accepted December 21^st, 2021 for the Journal of Cleaner Production. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101286

The storage of renewable energy, or more specifically electricity, has been researched throughout the last decade, with a special focus on solar and wind energy as sources and grid-scale applications. Several technologies can be applied for renewable electricity storage, including pumped hydroelectric storage (PHS), compressed air energy storage (CAES), superconducting magnetic energy storage, hydrogen storage, flywheels, capacitors and supercapacitors, and batteries, the latter available in different compositions such as lead-acid, nickel–cadmium, sodium-sulfur, lithium-ion, zinc-bromine and vanadium redox flow. Since their first commercialization in the 1990s, lithium-ion battery (LIB) has gained considerable market share in energy storage, competing directly with sodium-sulfur batteries, because of its high energy density, high efficiency, long lifetime, and for being more environmentally friendly. Moreover, because LIB is widely used in several applications, from small electronics to electric vehicles and grid-scale, the demand for raw materials used in these applications has increased significantly and is expected to reach even higher levels in the upcoming years. In the next decade, a yearly increased demand of 30% is expected, resulting in significantly higher consumption of lithium, graphite, cobalt, nickel, and manganese for LIB in 2030 and 2050, compared to current values. Therefore, it becomes important to look for alternative storage technologies that enable the development and expansion of renewable energy while reducing the pressure on the aforementioned battery raw materials.

This article breaks down the viability of Li-ion batteries for energy storage in combination with alternative green energy technologies. The analysis is a comparative study between Li-ion and Vanadium, while investigating into the life cycles and environmental feasibility of each battery storage type. This article was accepted April 28^th, 2021 for the journal of Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessment.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2019.e00120

Across a broad range of parametric studies, the most impactful factors were found to be fuel price (incurred by thermal generators),energy storage round-trip efficiency, transmission congestion constraints, and electricity supply mix of the overall systems (gas- or coal heavy; presence or absence of renewable generation). Comprehensive environmental impact assessment of grid-connected stationary LIB ESSs has not received sufficient scientific inquiry. Although a substantial and growing literature examines the impacts of LIB production, the subsequent stages of the life cycle – the use phase and end-of-life (EOL) phases of the storage system – are not sufficiently addressed. Currently, ESS owners and other stakeholders have only limited real world experience with EOL pathways for grid-scale ESS, because most existing systems have been installed within the last five years and are still within their expected service lifetimes (typically 10 years). However, as these systems reach the end of service in coming years, the cost and environmental impacts associated with their decommissioning and disposal, recycling, or reuse will become an increasingly pressing concern for their owners. This review is specifically focused on grid-connected stationary LIB ESS, which are the focus of all sections except where otherwise specified.

An impact report on the effects of electronic waste due to improper handling and management of Li-ion battery storage systems. Investigates into the concerns of growing economic strain and resource use with long term ESS. Accepted July 9^th, 2019 for the journal Sustainable Materials and Technologies.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.06.243

The desired battery is obtained when two or more cells are connected in an appropriate series and parallel arrangement, to obtain the required operating voltage and capacity for a certain load. Lithium ion batteries do need temperature control for a safe and efficient operation. Lithium ion batteries are the most popular form of storage in the world and represent 85.6% of deployed energy storage system in 2015. Despite the obvious advantages for the application of storage systems in the field of renewable energy power plants, it appears clearly that further efforts are mandatory to overcome the actual barriers. Further developments are needed in the storage field to achieve lower costs with more stable and efficient materials, for higher integration of renewable energy.

An evaluation on the feasibility of renewable energy storage systems with combination of Li-ion batteries and alternative green energy sources. Includes simulations with photovoltaic and hydrogen combination systems. Published July 25^th, 2016 for Science Direct Journal.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2020.07.028

The usefulness of ESS is visible through meeting high demands, managing delivery of energy, controlling the sporadic supply and generation of electricity, increasing power trustworthiness, matching load requirements of customers, cognizance of grid systems, and decreasing electrical energy import when demands are high. The SWOT Analysis of SMES indicated that this technology has strengths; high power capacity, stability, and quality, fast response time, high storage efficiency, flexible and reliable, complete charge and discharge, no moving parts, and no environmental hazard. The storage system has opportunities and potentials like large energy storage, unique application and transmission characteristics, innovating room temperature super conductors, further R & D improvement, reduced costs, and enhancing power capacities of present grid.

Environmental and economic review on the applications and implementation of ESS. Investigates into costs and limitations involved with Li-ion ESS for both short and long-term energy efficiency, including environmental risk factors. Published August 19^th, 2020 for the journal Energy Reports.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.07.002

The most common and proven application of energy storage devices in a commercial context has been to provide backup supply for critical loads. While energy storage devices are predominantly used for this purpose, they can also be used to lower electricity costs by purchasing electricity during off-peak periods, storing it when prices are low and using it during high-demand periods. Green Building Councils (GBCs) are non-profit industry organizations that are dedicated to drive adoption of green building practices through sustainable design and construction. Assessment of battery technologies as an integral component of a renewable energy harnessing technology, such as PV systems, helps demonstrate their capability for small-scale integration. While the performance of some battery technologies is technically apt, the economics of installing, running and maintaining that technology may not be feasible. Employment of battery energy storage technologies within small-scale renewable energy systems, to ensure efficiency and cost-effectiveness, will take priority when initial capital costs of storage technologies are driven down due to global investment, policy changes increase volatility of power prices and technological changes affect power consumption patterns.

A case report for commercial and residential use of small-scale Li-ion ESS facilities. A deep dive analysis on the global economy and the use of Li-ion for renewable energy practices. Includes global policy discussions. Accepted July 4^th, 2010 for Energy and Buildings journal.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2019.116467

Currently, some research and literature find that battery degradation is closely related to the terminal voltage during the charging process. Therefore, the incremental capacity analysis (ICA) is proposed as the features to evaluate battery health condition. Incremental capacity (IC) can be calculated by differential the charging/discharging capacity over the voltage evolution. Considering these drawbacks mentioned above, this paper analyzes the above-mentioned technical difficulties for the inferior quality datasets of the data-driven method and the noise-sensitive IC curve. To solve these problems, an advanced smoothing method based on Gaussian filter algorithm is proposed to obtain a smooth IC curve at first, and a partial region of IC curve is selected to extract battery degradation features using a linear interpolation method.

A deep dive into Li-ion battery life expectancy based on NASA datasets. Use of a regression model to simulate state of health of L-ion batteries in long-term storage. Published November 4^th, 2019 in the journal Energy.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.117309

Utility-scale demonstrations of second-life BESS are essential because a larger capacity system is necessary for grid applications. While it may seem inevitable that second-life batteries would be cost-effective in stationary storage applications, there are significant costs for collecting, transporting, and repurposing. In addition, the cost of new LIBs have fallen dramatically, which continues to present a challenge to the cost-competitiveness of second life LIBs. Given that second-life BESS are likely more costly than new BESS at utility-scale, the motivation for repurposing batteries should be interrogated. Second-life uses are intended to extract additional useful life from batteries and avert final disposal, but if economic, environmental, or social benefits do not materialize, second-life applications might prove undesirable. An analysis of the environmental tradeoffs between directing retired first life batteries to second-life applications instead of immediate recycling should be conducted.

An analysis on the impacts of recycled BESS facilities versus the installation of new BESS. A competitive approach to recycling by considering the second-life capabilities of retired Li-ion batteries at the end of battery life cycle. Available July 12^th, 2021in the journal of Applied Energy.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.063

In order to produce life cycle inventories (LCI), an extensive research on the state of the art of the selected technologies has been performed. An extensive analysis on commercially available and implemented solutions has been made in order to complete and enhance the final dimensioning of the infrastructures. The total life cycle energy amounts for each storage technology were calculated by taking into account the expected life time, capacity factor and capacity of the installations. We can observe different opportunities to reduce climate change impacts by using high efficiency storage units, Li-ion, NaNiCl and NAS. In the case of human toxicity, high volume, moderate efficiency systems, such as pumped hydro storage, sodium sulfur batteries and CAES. It is safe to say that the environmental performance of rechargeable energy storage systems is overall dependent on its efficiency and directly tied to the energy mixes associated to its use.

A comparison study of mechanical and electrical storage systems, investigating into the power rating and technological requirements for each simulation. Emphasis on the importance of Li-ion battery ESS for long term economical advantages, with further need of study on environmental challenges. Published June 10^th, 2015 for the journal Energy Conversion and Management.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.01.011

In this work, to address these issues, a capacity degradation model with chemical/mechanical degradation mechanisms is modified and integrated with an advanced SP model. This capacity degradation model is able to predict battery capacity loss as a function of cycle number and temperature, including SEI layer formation and growth, coupled with mechanical fatigue analysis. Further, the proposed model is able to predict voltage responses based on a physical analysis, which is an advanced method for predicting the voltage profiles as a function of cycle, compared to the existing method based on a look-up table. The effects of temperature on the voltage loss were similar to the effects of temperature on the capacity fade. In future studies, this model will be further extended by including additional side reactions such as lithium plating. One key challenge in fast charging is lithium plating and its interaction with other side reactions. This means fast charging needs an adaptive charging protocol as a function of cycle. This model will be a very important foundation for the creation of a fast charging protocol.

An assessment into the state of health of Li-ion batteries in ESS. A breakdown analysis of battery life based on temperature fluctuation and voltage loss. Available January 8^th, 2018 in the journal of Applied Energy.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.123987

Rechargeable storage systems are useful energy storage units, storing energy in chemical form. Today, several types of batteries with their innovative concepts suitable for specific purposes. These innovations often have various features, including varied sizes coupled with chemical parts incorporated into them. Several metals coupled with non-metals are required in significant quantities for battery manufacturing. Resource availability and economics are impacted by increasing battery manufacturing industry because of the mining of metal supplies. Furthermore, some of these minerals are valuable (Ag) and utilized as money. It will be necessary to produce extra amounts of minerals to meet the increased demand for metals. There is a growing global issue about environmental effects and health concerns. A focus is required to solve such issues, particularly with regard to health implications. All these key factors need to be examined holistically to accelerate the commercialization of some novel types of batteries and foster healthy competition with existing energy storage devices. Lead-acid, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion, redox flow, and sodium-sulfur batteries are among the commercially available utility-scale battery options. The current work highlighted batteries’ strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analysis in power transmission.

A global assessment on the benefits and challenges of Li-ion BESS on environmental and public health. A full SWOT analysis is available in the report and considers energy efficiency in pollution management. Published in Energy journal on April 27^th, 2022.

https://doi.org/10.3390/en10122107

Aging is an unavoidable process caused by side reactions present in all electrochemical devices including battery cells. It may result in significant changes of capacity and resistance of a device over time and must, therefore, be considered in the system layout phase (e.g., necessity of over-sizing initial capacity) as well as in the system operation phase (e.g., adapting maximum allowed cell dispatch power). For the remaining discussions of battery degradation, this work focuses on (semi-)empirical aging modeling and performance characterization via ECM as a state-of-art methodology for performance and aging prediction of LIB. In order to reduce degradation effects associated with the graphite anode, other host materials for Lithium insertion have been under investigation. Load uncertainty and forecasting methods are of extraordinaire importance for the optimal performance of predictive BESS dispatch control strategies. However, in order to exploit the full potential of BESS for stationary applications, it will be detrimental to link the technical features of BESS to application and grid framework via simulation and modeling approaches. Validation of such models using real-world data will help to further improve the system design and better match the requirements of a future power system.

Investigation into long-term power grid capabilities of Li-ion BESS. Validation through model simulations to determine weak points and technical challenges associated with implementation of BESS. Includes a cost of benefit report for power energy efficiency. Published December 11^th, 2017 in the journal of Energies.

The authors provided a description of evolving safety issues and demands in lithium-ion battery storage facilities. They emphasized grid energy storage applications, safety warning capacities, and potentially beneficial venting and signaling technologies. They further explained safety accidents evoked in lithium battery thermal runways are common, and have been potentially majorly destructive forces. Such accidents have continued to both threaten human safety and restrict related research and development efforts. Safety accidents involving battery storage stations have included fires and explosions, and the case of South Korea provided an example of how such occurrences can potentially include great devastation. In July of 2018, a fire accident on a wind farm in Yeongam led to over 3,500 lithium batteries burned in a 706 square-meter building, causing over four million dollars in damage. In the two years prior to the authors’ publication, over 20 such facility fire incidents had occurred in South Korea alone. This had led to major concerns for the energy storage industry and demand for safety technology developments. The authors addressed this major demand with some recommendation of a signal warning method to be developed within thermal runways, as some potentially mitigating factor, but even complete success in both this development and application would be incapable of fully addressing the extent of the present danger outlined.

https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/prs.12491

The content spans a range of dangerous aspects of present battery energy storage systems, resultant demands, and implications for continuing developments. The energy industry has experienced exponential growth in storage system developments, and while safety processes and demands have continued to grow in parallel, the extent of safety effectiveness has nonetheless been continually inadequate. Improving standards have continued to encompass minimum legal issues, but have remained concerning in community installations. This has given rise to demands for change in technology planning, facility developments and features, local community engagements in petitioning, and research and development initiatives. People have continued to work in attempt to better address the most common and pressing issues of fire danger or safety demand, explosion potentials and safeguard demands, and toxic emission issues integral in thermal runaway operations in maintained facility processes. Utility considerations of minimum standards required in code developments, expectations from community authorities, and developments in insurance policy have remained issues of rising significance in addressing the known great dangers. The present safety issue demand encompasses improved technology capacities, health and safety personnel operations, and policies in utility use or facility developments. There has been a continuing demand for improving the safety of at least utility-level energy storage facilities, if not greater, and this has encompassed demands for changing requirements in current practice.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0950423023000682

The authors described the present extent of danger or safety concerns inherent in lithium battery storage systems, focusing on the potentials for explosions and fires. Explosion prevention systems have improved in design and technological capacity, but their demand has remained too great amid inherent risk. Spilling, leaking from buoyancy or momentum, and sudden containment losses have been among the greatest threats that have continued to exist in such storage facilities. Flammable fluid use remains common practice, increasing the capacity for dangerous spreading local fires in addition to explosions of such facility containers. The inherent major safety danger has given rise to increased demand in improving research and development investments in the areas of flammable fluid materials science and safeties, storage procedures including alarm use or signaling processes, and operating processes or conditions in relation to inherent known hazard capacities. The latter element encompasses facility damage potential in addition to capacities for fires and explosions to affect the immediate environment within the community outside of such storage facilities. A primary challenge in better addressing current explosion and fire potentials has been targeting battery gas release in thermal runaway operation, and battery cell behavior [known to be non-linear and stochastic] has evoked demand for improved approaches to safety regulations and operations spanning instrumentation accessibility, testing procedures, and managing aspects of storage related to battery gas release potentials.

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9787060

The authors described digital safety potentials in addressing integral hazard potentials in operating battery energy storage systems. Safety risks integral in operation have continued to span vulnerability to natural disaster capacities, arc flashing [from major DC current], and inherent high voltage. Improper handling and operation has been correlated with increased safety risk in recent industrial operations. Meanwhile, damaged and overcharged cells have been more susceptible to subsequent fire and explosion potentials. This has given rise to increased demand for protection and monitoring technologies, and the primary area of developmental potential has been within digital technology expansions. However, using such systems has an inherent risk of dangerous cyberattacking exploiting operational vulnerabilities.